The voyage of the Gran Armada in the summer of 1588 is the subject of controversy on both the strategic and tactical levels. The Spanish plan, devised largely by Philip II himself between 1586 and 1588, involved an amphibious operation in which a fleet from Spain commanded by Medina Sidonia would occupy the anchorage in the Downs off the Kentish coast and protect a landing by an expeditionary force from the army of Flanders under Parma. The English, faced with a number of potential invasion sites, adopted a counter-strategy of intercepting the Armada in Iberian waters, but several attempts to do so between May and July 1588 were driven back by storms. Later in July the Armada (122 ships) sailed past the English fleet (66 ships) replenishing in Plymouth harbour. The running battle up the Channel was inconclusive (two Spanish ships lost through accident) and only the English fireship attack on the Armada's anchorage off Calais broke the stalemate. The Armada lost four important warships at this point, but the rest had to cut their cables and the prevailing wind drove them into the North Sea. They were then obliged to sail around the British Isles to return home, at the cost of 35 of the weaker ships.

The 1588 campaign was a major English propaganda victory, but in strategic terms it was essentially indecisive.

A galleon was a large, multi-decked sailing ship used primarily by the nations of Europe from the 16th to 18th centuries. Whether used for war or commerce, they were generally armed with demi-culverin.

Galleons were an evolution of the caravel and carrack (or nao), for the new great ocean going voyages. A lowering of the forecastle and elongation of the hull gave an unprecedented level of stability in the water, and reduced wind resistance at the front, leading to a faster, more maneuverable vessel. The galleon differed from the older types primarily by being longer, lower and narrower, with a square tuck stern instead of a round tuck, and by having a snout or head projecting forward from the bows below the level of the forecastle. In Portugal at least, carracks were usually very large ships for their time (often over 1000 tons), while galleons were mostly under 500 tons, although the Manila galleons were to reach up to 2000 tons. Carracks tended to be lightly armed and used for transporting booty from the Far East, while galleons were purpose-built warships, and were stronger, more heavily armed, and also cheaper to build (5 galleons could cost around the same as 3 carracks) and were therefore a much better investment for use as warships. There are nationalistic disputes about the origin of the galleon, which are complicated by its evolutionary development, but each Atlantic sea-power developed types suited to their needs, while constantly learning from their rivals.

The galleon was powered entirely by sail, carried on three to five masts, with a lateen sail continuing to be used on the last (usually third) mast. They were used in both military and trade applications, most famously in the Spanish treasure fleet, and the Manila Galleons. In fact, galleons were so versatile that a single vessel may have been refitted for wartime and peacetime roles several times during its lifespan. The galleon was the prototype of all three or more masted, square rigged ships, for over two and a half centuries, including the later full rigged ship.

The principal warships of the opposing English and Spanish fleets in the 1588 confrontation of the Spanish Armada were galleons, with the modified English "race built" galleons developed by John Hawkins proving decisive, while the more traditional Spanish galleons proved incredibly durable in the battles and in the great storm on the voyage home (most of the galleons survived).

Galleons were constructed from oak (for the keel), pine (for the masts) and various hardwoods for hull and decking. Hulls were usually carvel-built. The expenses involved in galleon construction were enormous. Hundreds of expert tradesmen (including carpenters, pitch-melters, blacksmiths, coopers, shipwrights, etc.) worked day and night for months before a galleon was seaworthy. Due to this, galleons were often funded by groups of wealthy businessmen who pooled resources for a new ship. Therefore, most galleons were originally consigned for trade, although those captured by rival nations were usually put into military service.

The most common gun used aboard a galleon was the demi-culverin, although gun sizes up to demi-cannon were possible.

Due to extensive time often spent at sea and poor conditions on board, much of the crew often perished during the voyage; therefore advanced rigging systems were developed so that the vessel could be sailed home by an active sailing crew a fraction of the size aboard at departure.

Distinguishing features

The most distinguishing features of the galleon include the long beak, the lateen-rigged mizzenmasts, and the square gallery at the stern off of the captain's cabin. At sea, during the battle of the Spanish Armada, for example, English ships were distinguished by the red Cross of St. George flag flying on all masts, except the Tudor Rose was flown on the main-mizzen mast. These features can be seen in this photograph of a model of a mid-16th century English Tudor galleon. [1]

With the evolution from the galleon to the ship of the line, the long straight beak-head became curved, shorter and more upright, jib sails were added, and eventually the lateen-rigged mizzenmast was replaced with square sails and a spanker sail.[2] As the practice of boarding was reduced, the fore and aft castles became shorter to improve maneuverability.[3][www.greatgridlock.net/Sqrigg/galleon.html]

The galleon continued to be used until the early 18th century, when better designed and purpose-built vessels such as the brig and the ship of the line rendered it obsolete for trade and warfare respectively.

• Born: c. 950
• Birthplace: Norway
• Died: c. 1000
• Best Known As: The viking explorer who colonized Greenland

Eric the Red (also Erik Thorvaldson, Eirik Raude or Eirik Torvaldsson) was a native of Norway and the founder of the first European settlement in Greenland. Nicknamed for the color of his hair, Eric was apparently exiled around 982 for killing two men. For three years he sailed around and explored the southern part of what he dubbed Greenland. In 986 he left Iceland with more than 20 ships and around 400-500 people. He arrived in Greenland with 14 boats and an estimated 350 colonizers. Although the settlement eventually disappeared, it opened the door to centuries of occasional explorations of the area and colonization attempts by northern Europeans. Eric the Red's son was Leif Ericsson, who went on to become one of the first Europeans to sail to North America.

Viking ship is a collective term for ships used during the Viking Age (800–1100) in Northern Europe. The ships are normally divided into classes based on size and function:

Types of Ship

Longship

Main article: Longship

These were the most versatile of the Viking ships, with a length of about 100 feet (30m), a 20-foot (6m) beam, up to 60 oars, and a crew of about 70-80. These could carry up to 20 tons of supplies. A large type of longship, known only from historical sources, is the Drekkar. These are said to have been the pride of Viking war-fleets, and were known as "Dragon Ships". The largest longship ever found however, is the Roskilde 6 discovered in Roskilde harbour in 1996/7. This ship is approximately 36m long and was built in the mid-11th century.

• Born: 29 September 1758
• Birthplace: Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk, England
• Died: 21 October 1805 (killed in battle)
• Best Known As: The hero of the Battle of Trafalgar

Horatio Nelson is the greatest hero in British naval history, an honor he earned by defeating Napoleon's fleet in the 1805 Battle of Trafalgar. Nelson entered the Royal Navy at age 12 and commanded his first vessel at age 20; as a captain he was both praised and condemned for his aggressive and unorthodox tactics. Nelson lost the sight in his right eye during the Siege of Calvi in 1794, and his right arm was amputated after it was shattered by gunfire during the battle of Santa Cruz at the island of Tenerife in 1797. Nelson was knighted in 1797 and made viscount in 1801. In 1799 he began a notorious affair with Lady Emma Hamilton; she bore him a daughter, Horatia, in 1801. Nelson's most famous victory was also his undoing: at Trafalgar he was mortally wounded on the deck of his ship HMS Victory. His body was returned to England and he received a hero's burial in St. Paul's Cathedral. A statue of Nelson was erected on the top of a great column in London's Trafalgar Square.

Just before the battle of Trafalgar Nelson sent a famous signal to his fleet: "England expects every man will do his duty"... Nelson's own last words were "Thank God I have done my duty"... Because of the distance from Trafalgar to England, Nelson's body was placed in a cask of brandy to preserve it for the trip.